In the 17th Century the scientific revolution was embraced by a society dealing with religious and political turmoil and uncertainty. The revolution helped to restore order in intellectual life.
Origins:
-Until the 16th Century ideas were biased on the Greeks
-Three important fields that were studied, physics (from Aristotle), astronomy (from Ptolemy...In Polemaic astronomy, the planets and the sun revolved around the earth. Everything ran on invisible, circular spheres. Irregularities were accounted for by epicycles--movement around small revolving spheres that were attached to the larger spheres), and medicine (from Galen)
-Revolutions occurred most in these three fields because new observations couldn’t support the ancient theories
(Example: Ptolemy's picture of the heavens didn't readily explain the fact that some planets seemed to move backwards at times)
Influences:
-Humanists discovered writings by previously unknown ancient scientists who hadn't always agreed with Aristotle and Ptolemy (for example: Archimedes)
-Europe’s fascination with inventors
-Growing interest in experiments among anatomists
-“Magical Beliefs”- solving these mysterious questions with comprehensive keys to nature- People believed they could find reasons in nature that explained “magical” phenomenon
Scientists: Vesalius- produced anatomical descriptions; wrote The Structure of the Human Body (published in 1543); pointed out Galen's errors, -Anatomy and astronomy
-Used dissections to study bodies better
Copernicus
-Calculations of planet movements under Ptolemy’s astronomy had grown too much. Planets and sun revolve around earth, circular motions, epicycles are when movements form larger spheres revolve around smaller spheres
-Simplicity
-Sun is center of universe, earth circles sun
-Need for calendar reforms motivated him
- wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. His system was just as complicated as Ptolemy's, and it was difficult to prove, but he was VERY good at math)
Kepler
-laws of planetary motion (helped advance Copernicus's ideas) -Math described movement of heavens
-Astrologer
-Magical theories
-Sun-centered
-Orbits of planets are ellipses
-Regularity based on distance form sun
Galileo
-first to use the scientific method-work biased on observations-he concluded that mathematical language could describe the underlying principles of nature-and when he explained his beliefs in the movement of the earth he came in conflict with the Church (he was the one who kinda sold out at his trial and said that he was wrong about the earth's movement around the sun...because he had become one of the most well-known advocates of Copernicus's theories) -Study of motion inspired him
-Work based on observations
-Built primitive telescope that was essential to studies of heavens
-Motion: understanding of principle of inertia
-Depended on math to imagine a situation that can’t be created experimentally
Isaac Newton
-Climax of the revolution-Math, physics, astronomy and optics
-United physics and astronomy into a single system to explain motion, transformed math by making calculus and made physics’ basic laws
-Prepared papers for Royal Society (these institutions promoted advances of science)
Wrote Principia-in which he claimed that everything he said was proved by experiments or mathematics
Explained everything in three laws:Solution to problem of motion
1) In absence of force, motion continues in a straight line
2) Rate of change is determined by forces acting on it
3) Action and reaction between two bodies are equal and opposite
-To figure out these laws needed concepts of mass, inertia, force in relation to velocity and acceleration
(Anyone who wants to know: Tyco Brahe was the guy who observed and recorded the phases and positions of the moon for decades.)
The Method:
-Scientists now had a new way to verify knowledge
-Three parts-observation-generalization biased on observations-experiments
-method had to be proved before accepted through the masses
-No data except results of strict observation
-Scientific reasoning uncovered laws, principles, patterns that emerged from observations
-Observations had numerical value
-Math
-Experiments and hypotheses can occur in the mind, like Galileo did
-Scientific Method is a special way of looking at and understanding nature
Applying the Method:
Descartes-(1596-1650)-first to test it
-Apply science to theories of knowledge
-Laid foundations for philosophy
-People can be deceived by their senses
-Applied all knowledge to principle of doubt
-“I think therefore I am” because act of doubting proved he was thinking, which proved his existence
-Whatever is thought must be true
-We are all imperfect, so there is a perfect standard to compare to; therefore there is a God
-Emphasis on power of the mind
-Thought is pure and unmistakable guide, and only by relying on it can people improve their understanding of the world
-Divide between spirit and matter
-Bacon and Galileo said nature is separated from faith; Descartes divided science from faith and reality of the world form our perception of reality
*Influence on World
-Emphasis on operations of mind
-Hypothesis gained credibility form logical tightness of arguments that support it
-Applied methods of science to all knowledge
-Nature and truth had to be investigated acoording to methods of the scientist
-a distinction between thought and tangible objects
Pascal-challenged the new idea
-wanted people to realize that science had limitations and more important truths could be found through faith
*Protests against new science
-Against philosophy of Descartes
-Mathematician, experimenter, probability
-Dissatisfied with scientific research
*Discoveries
-Barometric pressure (helped invent)
-Calculating machine
*Pascal
-Had mystical experience so made him devote himself to his soul
*Pensees
-Collection of reflections
-Religious
-Feared growing of science
-Truths uncovered by science were limited and not as important as truths perceived by faiths
-“The heart has its reasons reason cannot know”
Bacon
-Greatest of scientist’s propagandists
-Vision of ideal society in New Atlantis, vision of science as the savior of the human race and people doing research are most important people
-Induction: will make people lots on earth
Science Institutionalized
-the method becomes popular
-Royal Society started to gather knowledge about nature
-Louis XIV followed suit and started a similar society
Arts and Literature
Unsettling Art
-Mannerism-attempt to escape reality
-against serenity and idealization of High Renaissance: cultivated artificial and estoteric images of the world, undermined perspective, distorted humans, made unnatural colors and lighting for startling effects
-El Greco’s (1541-1614) work embodied this style
-Mannerism dispersed in the 1600’s
-otherworldy alternative to the trouble of the times
-cool colors, eerie lighting, elongated and antagonized humans
-rejected the Mannerists’ flight
-settlement that descended over European civilization
Unsettling Writers
-Michel de Mantaigne-wrote about skepticism-doubt and finding truth
-Then he took a more confident view saying that if a person looks to themselves they can find truths, and use this to find truths and values that all of humanity share
-litterature
-reflected concerns of the age
-death
-overcome his fears
-wrote short pieces
-studied subjects he didn’t fully comprehend
-created new literary form: essay
-helped shape French language
-philisophical influence
-inspired self-search ever since
-radical doubt about skeptisism: possibility of finding truth
-“What do I know?” “Know thyself”
-one’s person has values that hold true, reflect values of all humanity
-morallity without theology
-good and self-determination
-saw religious people commiting inhuman acts
-“trying to be an angel is wrong, being good is enough”
-one of the first writers to use non-Western models to criticize Europeans
-those who kill for food is better than those who kill for religion
-Neostoicism-morality-to be self-disciplined
-emphasis on self-knowledge and calm acceptance of the world
-Dutch writer named Lipsius arranged that public leaders ought to be guided by guided by profound self-examination
-urged rulers to be restrained and self-disciplined
-Cervantes (1547-1616)-saw a wide gap between hopes and realities of the day
Wrote Don Quixote
-ridiculing chivalry of Spanish nobility in portrayal of a knight, who admired hero and sympathized with him as a loser
-disillusionment accompanied political and economic decline was captured by Cervantes
*Brought life of Europe alive
-ordinary people and their hypocrisies and intolerances with a liveliness
-avoided politics, directed many of the sharpest barbs at the brutality and disregard for human values
-Shakespeare (1564-1616)-characters with every mood-he made statements about human behavior-and showed a deeper understanding of human nature
Assurance in Arts
-Baroque-after 1600’s-passion-drama-mystery
-drown uneasiness of Mannerism in a blaze of grandeur
-paiion, drama, mystery, awe, uplift audience
-associated with counter reformation’s emphasis on gorgeous display of Catholic ritual
-Rome attracted painters
-flourished at Catholic courts
-few styles conveyed grandeur, theatricality and ornateness
-Caravaggio-painted ordinary people-and used them to represent holy/prominent figures
-shaped new aesthetic
-received commission from high Church figures
-in cardinal’s house
-spent equal amount of time at hime with beggars and criminals
-depicted highly emotional moments
-sharp contrasts of light and dark
-work was prized
-Rubens-stressed the power of the Church
-went to Rome to study Caravaggio’s art
- principal ornament of Hapsburg court
*themes
-glorifications of great rulers, ceremony, mystery of Catholicism, strength, religious works overwhelm viewers with majesty of Church, stress power of faith
-Velazquez-exalted royal power-managed to express sadness and emptiness as well
-glorified rulers through idealized portraiture
-depict rulers and surroundings
-weakness of an effective monarch
- exalt royal power
-sadness and emptiness and glory of the war
-Bernini-brought what Rubens portrayed in his paintings to his own sculptures
-religious works
-sensual and overpowering altarpiece makes direct appeal to emotions of the beholder it’s epitome of the excitement and confidence of the Baroque
*basicilica of St. Peter’s
-Interior: papal throne, floats on clouds in sunshine
-Exterior: plaza, colonnade
Music
-keyboard and new string instruments invented or improved
-music mixed with theater, dance, painting, etc…created the opera
Art-Classicism-recapture values and strict forms of ancient Greece and Rome
-aesthetic values
-strict forms that have been favored in Greece and Rome
- Like Baroque, Classissism aimed for grandiose effectsm but unlike Baroque, it achieved them through restraint and discipline through a formal structure
-gradual rise echoed the trend towards stablility
-age of striving in the arts was coming to an end
-Poussin-atmosphere more subdued
-epitome of disciplined expression and conscious imitation of Classical antiquity
-French artist
-spent carreer in Rome
-no less interested than ihis contemporaries in momentous and dramatic subjects
-atmosphere is more subdued than in the work of Velazquez or Rubens
-colors are muted, figures are restrained, settings are serene
*features in his art
-peaceful landscapes, men and women in togas and ruins of Classical buildings
-Dutch Style-intimate style-influenced by Protestantism and republicanism
-paticular influence on its painters
-reformed church did not like religious art
- reduced need for biblical scenes to be painted
- religious works expressed personal faith
-absense of court meant chief patrons were sober merchants who were more interested in dignified portraits than in ornate displays
-result was compelling art whose beauty lies in its calmness and restraint
Compelling-beauty in the calmness and restraint of the paintings
-Rembrandt- human character, emotion, and self-revelation-painted all different people
The personalities of his subjects spoke for themselves in the art
-broad range of themes
-presented without elaboration or idealization
-personallity always speaks for itself
-portraiture
*changes in his own face over his lifetime
-turned form confident to sorrowful to sadness to despair
*themes
-human character
-emotion
-self-realvation
*after his death
-serenity, camness, elegance, became watchwords of European painting
-age of repose and grace was succeeding a time of upheaval as surely in the arts as in other spheres of life
Classicism in Drama
-Unity of place, time, and action
-Dictated simplicity and purity of plot
-formalism
-literature and drama
-new plays conform to structure laid down by the ancients
*3 classical unities to be observed (unity of…)
1) place: no change in location
2) time: 24 hour periods
3) action: simplicity and purity of plot
Conneille-early plays had complex and involved plots
Changed his style to classicism with his own twist
He followed the rules but kept the complicated plot, and set everything to one day
The audiences loved it
*“Le Cid” based on legends of a Spanish hero
-observed 3 unities
- compressing an entire love affair, military campaign and other events into 1 day
-won immediate success
- thereafter adhered to classical forms but was never at ease with their restraints
-pasion wasn’t absent
-Jean Racine, the model Classic dramatist make some of the most intense emotion ever seen on stage
-exuberence of earlier drama was disappearing
-exactly the progression from turbulence to calm
The Scientific Revolution-p (460-480)
In the 17th Century the scientific revolution was embraced by a society dealing with religious and political turmoil and uncertainty. The revolution helped to restore order in intellectual life.
Origins:
-Until the 16th Century ideas were biased on the Greeks
-Three important fields that were studied, physics (from Aristotle), astronomy (from Ptolemy...In Polemaic astronomy, the planets and the sun revolved around the earth. Everything ran on invisible, circular spheres. Irregularities were accounted for by epicycles--movement around small revolving spheres that were attached to the larger spheres), and medicine (from Galen)
-Revolutions occurred most in these three fields because new observations couldn’t support the ancient theories
(Example: Ptolemy's picture of the heavens didn't readily explain the fact that some planets seemed to move backwards at times)
Influences:
-Humanists discovered writings by previously unknown ancient scientists who hadn't always agreed with Aristotle and Ptolemy (for example: Archimedes)
-Europe’s fascination with inventors
-Growing interest in experiments among anatomists
-“Magical Beliefs”- solving these mysterious questions with comprehensive keys to nature- People believed they could find reasons in nature that explained “magical” phenomenon
Scientists:
Vesalius- produced anatomical descriptions; wrote The Structure of the Human Body (published in 1543); pointed out Galen's errors, -Anatomy and astronomy
-Used dissections to study bodies better
Copernicus
-Calculations of planet movements under Ptolemy’s astronomy had grown too much. Planets and sun revolve around earth, circular motions, epicycles are when movements form larger spheres revolve around smaller spheres
-Simplicity
-Sun is center of universe, earth circles sun
-Need for calendar reforms motivated him
- wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. His system was just as complicated as Ptolemy's, and it was difficult to prove, but he was VERY good at math)
Kepler
-laws of planetary motion (helped advance Copernicus's ideas) -Math described movement of heavens
-Astrologer
-Magical theories
-Sun-centered
-Orbits of planets are ellipses
-Regularity based on distance form sun
Galileo
-first to use the scientific method-work biased on observations-he concluded that mathematical language could describe the underlying principles of nature-and when he explained his beliefs in the movement of the earth he came in conflict with the Church (he was the one who kinda sold out at his trial and said that he was wrong about the earth's movement around the sun...because he had become one of the most well-known advocates of Copernicus's theories) -Study of motion inspired him
-Work based on observations
-Built primitive telescope that was essential to studies of heavens
-Motion: understanding of principle of inertia
-Depended on math to imagine a situation that can’t be created experimentally
Isaac Newton
-Climax of the revolution-Math, physics, astronomy and optics
-United physics and astronomy into a single system to explain motion, transformed math by making calculus and made physics’ basic laws
-Prepared papers for Royal Society (these institutions promoted advances of science)
Wrote Principia-in which he claimed that everything he said was proved by experiments or mathematics
Explained everything in three laws:Solution to problem of motion
1) In absence of force, motion continues in a straight line
2) Rate of change is determined by forces acting on it
3) Action and reaction between two bodies are equal and opposite
-To figure out these laws needed concepts of mass, inertia, force in relation to velocity and acceleration
(Anyone who wants to know: Tyco Brahe was the guy who observed and recorded the phases and positions of the moon for decades.)
The Method:
-Scientists now had a new way to verify knowledge
-Three parts-observation-generalization biased on observations-experiments
-method had to be proved before accepted through the masses
-No data except results of strict observation
-Scientific reasoning uncovered laws, principles, patterns that emerged from observations
-Observations had numerical value
-Math
-Experiments and hypotheses can occur in the mind, like Galileo did
-Scientific Method is a special way of looking at and understanding nature
Applying the Method:
Descartes-(1596-1650)-first to test it
-Apply science to theories of knowledge
-Laid foundations for philosophy
-People can be deceived by their senses
-Applied all knowledge to principle of doubt
-“I think therefore I am” because act of doubting proved he was thinking, which proved his existence
-Whatever is thought must be true
-We are all imperfect, so there is a perfect standard to compare to; therefore there is a God
-Emphasis on power of the mind
-Thought is pure and unmistakable guide, and only by relying on it can people improve their understanding of the world
-Divide between spirit and matter
-Bacon and Galileo said nature is separated from faith; Descartes divided science from faith and reality of the world form our perception of reality
*Influence on World
-Emphasis on operations of mind
-Hypothesis gained credibility form logical tightness of arguments that support it
-Applied methods of science to all knowledge
-Nature and truth had to be investigated acoording to methods of the scientist
-a distinction between thought and tangible objects
Pascal-challenged the new idea
-wanted people to realize that science had limitations and more important truths could be found through faith
*Protests against new science
-Against philosophy of Descartes
-Mathematician, experimenter, probability
-Dissatisfied with scientific research
*Discoveries
-Barometric pressure (helped invent)
-Calculating machine
*Pascal
-Had mystical experience so made him devote himself to his soul
*Pensees
-Collection of reflections
-Religious
-Feared growing of science
-Truths uncovered by science were limited and not as important as truths perceived by faiths
-“The heart has its reasons reason cannot know”
Bacon
-Greatest of scientist’s propagandists
-Vision of ideal society in New Atlantis, vision of science as the savior of the human race and people doing research are most important people
-Induction: will make people lots on earth
Science Institutionalized
-the method becomes popular
-Royal Society started to gather knowledge about nature
-Louis XIV followed suit and started a similar society
Arts and Literature
Unsettling Art
-Mannerism-attempt to escape reality
-against serenity and idealization of High Renaissance: cultivated artificial and estoteric images of the world, undermined perspective, distorted humans, made unnatural colors and lighting for startling effects
-El Greco’s (1541-1614) work embodied this style
-Mannerism dispersed in the 1600’s
-otherworldy alternative to the trouble of the times
-cool colors, eerie lighting, elongated and antagonized humans
-rejected the Mannerists’ flight
-settlement that descended over European civilization
Unsettling Writers
-Michel de Mantaigne-wrote about skepticism-doubt and finding truth
-Then he took a more confident view saying that if a person looks to themselves they can find truths, and use this to find truths and values that all of humanity share
-litterature
-reflected concerns of the age
-death
-overcome his fears
-wrote short pieces
-studied subjects he didn’t fully comprehend
-created new literary form: essay
-helped shape French language
-philisophical influence
-inspired self-search ever since
-radical doubt about skeptisism: possibility of finding truth
-“What do I know?” “Know thyself”
-one’s person has values that hold true, reflect values of all humanity
-morallity without theology
-good and self-determination
-saw religious people commiting inhuman acts
-“trying to be an angel is wrong, being good is enough”
-one of the first writers to use non-Western models to criticize Europeans
-those who kill for food is better than those who kill for religion
-Neostoicism-morality-to be self-disciplined
-emphasis on self-knowledge and calm acceptance of the world
-Dutch writer named Lipsius arranged that public leaders ought to be guided by guided by profound self-examination
-urged rulers to be restrained and self-disciplined
-Cervantes (1547-1616)-saw a wide gap between hopes and realities of the day
Wrote Don Quixote
-ridiculing chivalry of Spanish nobility in portrayal of a knight, who admired hero and sympathized with him as a loser
-disillusionment accompanied political and economic decline was captured by Cervantes
*Brought life of Europe alive
-ordinary people and their hypocrisies and intolerances with a liveliness
-avoided politics, directed many of the sharpest barbs at the brutality and disregard for human values
-Shakespeare (1564-1616)-characters with every mood-he made statements about human behavior-and showed a deeper understanding of human nature
Assurance in Arts
-Baroque-after 1600’s-passion-drama-mystery
-drown uneasiness of Mannerism in a blaze of grandeur
-paiion, drama, mystery, awe, uplift audience
-associated with counter reformation’s emphasis on gorgeous display of Catholic ritual
-Rome attracted painters
-flourished at Catholic courts
-few styles conveyed grandeur, theatricality and ornateness
-Caravaggio-painted ordinary people-and used them to represent holy/prominent figures
-shaped new aesthetic
-received commission from high Church figures
-in cardinal’s house
-spent equal amount of time at hime with beggars and criminals
-depicted highly emotional moments
-sharp contrasts of light and dark
-work was prized
-Rubens-stressed the power of the Church
-went to Rome to study Caravaggio’s art
- principal ornament of Hapsburg court
*themes
-glorifications of great rulers, ceremony, mystery of Catholicism, strength, religious works overwhelm viewers with majesty of Church, stress power of faith
-Velazquez-exalted royal power-managed to express sadness and emptiness as well
-glorified rulers through idealized portraiture
-depict rulers and surroundings
-weakness of an effective monarch
- exalt royal power
-sadness and emptiness and glory of the war
-Bernini-brought what Rubens portrayed in his paintings to his own sculptures
-religious works
-sensual and overpowering altarpiece makes direct appeal to emotions of the beholder it’s epitome of the excitement and confidence of the Baroque
*basicilica of St. Peter’s
-Interior: papal throne, floats on clouds in sunshine
-Exterior: plaza, colonnade
Music
-keyboard and new string instruments invented or improved
-music mixed with theater, dance, painting, etc…created the opera
Art-Classicism-recapture values and strict forms of ancient Greece and Rome
-aesthetic values
-strict forms that have been favored in Greece and Rome
- Like Baroque, Classissism aimed for grandiose effectsm but unlike Baroque, it achieved them through restraint and discipline through a formal structure
-gradual rise echoed the trend towards stablility
-age of striving in the arts was coming to an end
-Poussin-atmosphere more subdued
-epitome of disciplined expression and conscious imitation of Classical antiquity
-French artist
-spent carreer in Rome
-no less interested than ihis contemporaries in momentous and dramatic subjects
-atmosphere is more subdued than in the work of Velazquez or Rubens
-colors are muted, figures are restrained, settings are serene
*features in his art
-peaceful landscapes, men and women in togas and ruins of Classical buildings
-Dutch Style-intimate style-influenced by Protestantism and republicanism
-paticular influence on its painters
-reformed church did not like religious art
- reduced need for biblical scenes to be painted
- religious works expressed personal faith
-absense of court meant chief patrons were sober merchants who were more interested in dignified portraits than in ornate displays
-result was compelling art whose beauty lies in its calmness and restraint
Compelling-beauty in the calmness and restraint of the paintings
-Rembrandt- human character, emotion, and self-revelation-painted all different people
The personalities of his subjects spoke for themselves in the art
-broad range of themes
-presented without elaboration or idealization
-personallity always speaks for itself
-portraiture
*changes in his own face over his lifetime
-turned form confident to sorrowful to sadness to despair
*themes
-human character
-emotion
-self-realvation
*after his death
-serenity, camness, elegance, became watchwords of European painting
-age of repose and grace was succeeding a time of upheaval as surely in the arts as in other spheres of life
Classicism in Drama
-Unity of place, time, and action
-Dictated simplicity and purity of plot
-formalism
-literature and drama
-new plays conform to structure laid down by the ancients
*3 classical unities to be observed (unity of…)
1) place: no change in location
2) time: 24 hour periods
3) action: simplicity and purity of plot
Conneille-early plays had complex and involved plots
Changed his style to classicism with his own twist
He followed the rules but kept the complicated plot, and set everything to one day
The audiences loved it
*“Le Cid” based on legends of a Spanish hero
-observed 3 unities
- compressing an entire love affair, military campaign and other events into 1 day
-won immediate success
- thereafter adhered to classical forms but was never at ease with their restraints
-pasion wasn’t absent
-Jean Racine, the model Classic dramatist make some of the most intense emotion ever seen on stage
-exuberence of earlier drama was disappearing
-exactly the progression from turbulence to calm